The Origins of Halloween

Halloween is a night of mischief and magic, of fright and fear. It’s a time for tricks and treats, for pumpkin carving and hayrides. Halloween is the one night of the year when you come as you aren’t by donning a costume and transforming yourself into a character from your wildest dreams. It’s a transitional time that signals the end of autumn and the beginning of winter. Tradition tells us that on Halloween night, the veil thins between the earthly and spirit worlds, and the dead roam our lands. But where did these traditions come from? Join me on a spooky journey through the ages as we discover the origins of Halloween.

The Origins of Halloween: Celtic Roots

To trace Halloween’s origins, we have to go back – way back to ancient times. We’re traveling to the era of the Celtic peoples, who lived in the British Isles from the second millennium BCE to the 1^st century CE. Although we immediately associate the Celts with Ireland, they also lived in England, Scotland, and Wales. They even migrated to Western Europe, particularly France and Spain.

The Celts are a mysterious bunch because we don’t know much about them. They didn’t keep written records, so what we do know comes from oral traditions and archaeological evidence. The oral histories have to be taken with a grain of salt, though, because they come from the very biased perspectives of ancient Romans and Christians. As historians, we’ve got to always evaluate our sources and take note of prejudices and biases. Don’t trust everything you read!

Samhain

Anyway, the Celts are known for their pagan religion and Druid priests. I know what you’re thinking, and yes, they probably committed human sacrifices. It was a thing back then. Celts also believed in the afterlife and magical beings. Fairies figured prominently, but we’re not talking about Tinker Bell here. To the Celtic people, fairies were annoying little fuckers who bugged humans and created all sorts of chaos. Mischief reigned on one night each year when the veil between the natural and supernatural worlds lifted. The night was October 31, known as Samhain, when fairies and spirits crossed over into our world.

Samhain (pronounced “sow-in”) means “summer’s end.” It was the pagan new year, marking the change in seasons and the arrival of winter. Samhain was a three-day harvest festival beginning the night of October 31. The Celts partied it up with feasting, drinking, and bonfires. To balance the celebratory nature of the festival, they also conducted boring administrative duties like collecting taxes (ugh, yes, even Celts had Tax Day). Legal dramas also played out during this time, some of which ended in executions.

Historians argue over how much Samhain contributed to our modern-day Halloween. Many agree that the Celtic holiday was a sort of precursor to ours and, therefore, is part of the origin story. They believe the legacies of Samhain are present in the harvest traditions and association with the dead, which have evolved over the centuries. Other historians believe the Samhain connection is horseshit and that it was made up by 19th-century scholars. History is all about interpreting sources, so there is often disagreement and areas of ambiguity. ¹

The Origins of Halloween: Christianity

Ancient Rome conquered a lot of lands and peoples, including the Celts. In 380 CE, Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. In the following centuries, the Catholic Church spread from Rome to much of Europe, including the British Isles. As a result, the pagan Celts, conquered by the Romans, converted to Christianity.

Conversion was tricky, though. To help the process, the church developed a method we call syncretism. Many of you might be familiar with this word from Global History class because it was most definitely on your final exam. Anyway, syncretism merged elements of pagan religions with Christianity. Festivals were an easy target because, rather than just getting rid of them, the church offered alternative Christian holidays instead.

Okay, great. What does this have to do with Samhain and the origins of Halloween? In a nutshell, some historians believe the church employed syncretism to get those pesky pagans to stop celebrating their holidays. The details get tricky to follow, so I’ll do my best to make this as simple as possible. I’ve also created a handy timeline to make it less confusing. History is messy AF sometimes.

Alright, let’s get into it. It all starts with the origins of All Saints’ Day.

Feast of the Martyrs (Precursors to All Saints’)

On May 13, 609 CE,² Pope Boniface IV converted the Pantheon in Rome (a pagan temple) into a Catholic church. He dedicated the building to the Virgin Mary and all Christian martyrs. With this act, the forerunner to All Saints’ Day was born.  

Historians believe this was totally a case of syncretism. The pope specifically chose May 13, the last night of the pagan Roman festival of Lemuria.³ What a coincidence! 🧐

Celebrated on May 9, 11, and 13, Lemuria was a festival of the dead involving rituals to protect the living from spirits returning to earth.⁴ The church was like, wow, look at that – your festival of the dead just so happens to be the date of our new Christian holiday celebrating the dead! Why don’t you just switch to our holiday? Okay, thanks!

Other historians, however, don’t agree with this interpretation. Religious Studies scholar Bruce David Forbes isn’t so sure this was deliberate syncretism. He notes that while the Catholic Church did convert pagans using this method, it wasn’t used all the time, and sometimes similarities may just be a coincidence.⁵

A Note About Christian Martyrs

You may be wondering, WTF are Christian martyrs? Well, before Rome officially became Christian in 380 CE, its religion was pagan. Early Christians practiced their faith in pagan Rome and didn’t have a good time. A lot of them died in truly horrific ways and, as a result, became martyrs due to their unwavering commitment to their faith. Some particularly gruesome deaths included being grilled alive on a gridiron and being stoned to death. St. Bartholomew, who was flayed alive, has haunted me since I learned about him in middle school.  😱

All Saints’ Day

Now that we took that lovely martyr detour, let’s jump to the mid-8^th century CE, when Pope Gregory III moved the feasts of the martyrs from May 13 to November 1. He declared it was now a day to celebrate all saints, not just Christian martyrs.

Why November 1, you ask? Historian Lisa Morton believes this was yet another case of syncretism on the part of the church to stop the celebration of pagan holidays. If you remember from earlier, November 1 was the second day of Samhain. According to a 9^th-century Irish religious calendar, which marked November 1 as “saimain,” Christianized Celts still celebrated the ancient harvest festival.

Morton also notes the church later added All Souls’ Day on November 2 (more on that below), creating a new three-day Christian extravaganza reminiscent of the three-day Samhain festival. She does, however, offer an alternate theory for the date change. Perhaps November 1, which was during the harvest, was a better day to feed thousands of pilgrims descending on Rome for the Christian celebration.⁶

Bruce David Forbes doesn’t buy this date change as syncretism. He states Pope Gregory only applied the new festival date to Rome and not the British Isles. Forbes believes the reason for the switch was either to feed the hungry hordes of pilgrims in Rome, or the change of seasons from fall to winter was a natural time to celebrate the dead.⁷

Okay, we’ve got one more important date to include. In 837 CE, Pope Gregory IV made All Saints’ Day an official observance for everybody in Western Christianity. No matter where you live, you’re celebrating, dammit.

All Souls’ Day

In the year 1000 CE, the church declared November 2 as All Souls’ Day. Legend has the holiday starting in 998 CE by Odilon, Bishop of Cluny. By the 14^th century, All Souls’ Day was added to official calendars in Western Christianity.

All Souls’ Day is different than All Saints’ Day because it’s intended for the souls of all dead people, especially the ones stuck in Purgatory in desperate need of prayers. This holiday is for everyone else because, apparently, we aren’t special enough to be prayed for on the same day as the saints.

Origins of Halloween: All Hallows’ Eve

Finally, we’ve made it. Halloween first appears in written texts around the 15^th – 16^th centuries. It’s listed as the first day of the three-day Christian holiday commemorating the souls of the dead.

• October 31 (Day 1): All Hallows’ Eve (Halloween)
• November 1 (Day 2): All Saints’ Day
• November 2 (Day 3): All Souls’ Day

The word Halloween is derived from “All Hallows’ Eve.” Here’s the breakdown:

1. “Hallows” means holy, which refers to the saints honored on November 1.
2. “Eve,” or evening, refers to the night before All Saints’ Day.

Halloween was also written as “Hallowe’en,” but sometime in the 20^th century, the apostrophe went out of fashion. All Saints’ Day was sometimes called All Hallows or Hallowmas. All Souls’ Day was also called Hallowtide.⁸

So, what did All Hallows’ Eve celebrations look like? Pretty much like Samhain, with mischief, partying, bonfires, and tomfoolery mixed in with spirits of the dead.⁹ It was largely celebrated in the British Isles.

The Origins of Halloween: Other Factors

Historians note two other European events that contributed to the origins of Halloween. The two are gruesome doozies: the Black Death and the witch hunts.

The Black Death

In October 1347, the plague sailed into Europe on trading ships docking in the Mediterranean. Within two years, the disease spread throughout Europe via rat bites, fleas, and human contact. Millions died, and outbreaks continued popping up over the next three centuries. It was a complete and utter catastrophe.

With literally everyone dying all over the place, survivors developed a morbid sense of humor. They were also totally obsessed with images of death, notably skeletons, the Grim Reaper, and the Danse Macabre, or Dance of Death. Typically depicted as a dance of the living and/or dead, the Danse Macabre is an allegorical representation of the inevitability of death. Regardless of whether you’re a lord or pleb, death comes for everyone.

This grim reality influenced the characteristics and imagery of All Hallows’ Eve throughout the centuries.

Witch Hunts

Witch hunts were all the rage in Europe, resulting in the execution of tens of thousands of women and men. They started in the 15^th century and spiraled out of control during the next two centuries, even making their way to New England as the infamous Salem Witch trials of 1692. As you all probably know from History 101, people accused of witchcraft were often scapegoats for social, economic, and political turmoil.

While both women and men were accused of witchcraft, the overwhelming majority were women, many of whom were older in age. Thus, the image of the witch as an old hag was born. Gnarly old witches were typically shown with a broom, cauldron, and black cat, all domestic items used by women in the home.

Oh no, your wife cooks soup for you in a cauldron and sweeps the house with a broom?! She has a pet cat who takes care of your rat problem? She’s a witch! Burn her!

Image of the Witch

During this period, witches became inextricably tied to Halloween through accusations of consorting with the devil on All Hallows’ Eve. Historians believe this claim may have originated when Catholics and Protestants were relentlessly battling for power and killing each other in merry old England. This was the time Henry VIII broke with the Catholic Church to divorce his wife (The Tudors, anyone?). Henry’s daughters, Mary I (Catholic) and Elizabeth I (Protestant), each persecuted the opposite religion during their reigns, resulting in the deaths of a lot of Catholics and Protestants.

As a result of this religious strife, Protestants hated All Saints’ and All Souls’ Days because they were Catholic holidays. What better way to shut them down than by demonizing All Hallows’ Eve, the first day of the three-day celebration?¹⁰

Even after Europe and America regained their senses and stopped executing witches, images of old hags flying on broomsticks or toiling over bubbling cauldrons were already solidified as cultural symbols. As a result, the witch became an integral part of Halloween imagery.

Origins of Halloween: Coming to America

The origins of Halloween in America began in the 19^th century with Irish and Scottish immigration. In 1845, Ireland experienced a devastating famine when one of their staple crops – the potato – became infested with mold. Rather than starve to death, many emigrated to America. The Scots came over in waves, too, but not because of the Irish Potato Famine. With the Irish and Scottish came Halloween.

Before the 19^th century, Halloween wasn’t a holiday in the United States. Those of you who know your history may be wondering why it didn’t arrive with the English settlers in the 17^th century. That’s because the English largely stopped celebrating Halloween by that time. In fact, in 1647, Parliament banned all festivals and holy days, including All Hallows’ Eve, All Saints’ Day, and All Souls’ Day. Remember my little spiel about English Protestants vs. Catholics? Yeah, well, there was no way the English Protestant government was going to allow Catholic celebrations.

That doesn’t mean early colonists didn’t celebrate the harvest. Their autumn customs melded with Irish and Scottish Halloween traditions, creating a new, distinctly American holiday. Examples of old-world traditions taking on a new American flavor include jack-o’-lanterns, divination, and trick-or-treating.

Halloween beliefs and practices have evolved over the centuries, particularly as the festival came to the United States in the 19^th century. It’s a holiday with roots in both pagan and Christian traditions. Yet no matter the time period or continent, Halloween has always been a harvest celebration and festival of the dead.

Interested in the history of the jack-o’-lantern? Check out The Origins of the Jack-o’-lantern. Also, check out Halloween Vintage Postcards in the Early 20th Century to get a visual treat of Halloween iconography and divination traditions.

Footnotes

1. Morton, Trick or Treat, 11. ↩︎
2. Some sources say 610 CE. ↩︎
3. Morton, Trick or Treat, 11; Forbes, America’s Favorite, 8. ↩︎
4. Michels, “Roman Festivals,” 76. ↩︎
5. Forbes, America’s Favorite, 120. ↩︎
6. Morton, Trick or Treat, 18-19. ↩︎
7. Forbes, America’s Favorite, 120-121. ↩︎
8. Morton, Trick or Treat, 11; Forbes, America’s Favorite, 121. ↩︎
9. James, Folk lore, 179. ↩︎
10. Morton, Trick or Treat, 22-23. ↩︎

Bibliography & Further Reading

*Several of the following links are Amazon affiliate links, which means I earn a commission if you make a purchase, at no cost to you.

Bannatyne, Lesley Pratt. Halloween: An American Holiday, an American History. Gretna: Pelican Publishing Company, Inc., 1998.

Forbes, Bruce David. America’s Favorite Holidays: Candid Histories. Oakland: University of California Press, 2015.

Kelley, Ruth Edna. The Book of Hallowe’en. Boston: Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Co., 1919.

Michels, Agnes K. “Roman Festivals: April-June.” The Classical Outlook 67, no. 3 (1990): 76-77. JSTOR. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43936643.

Morton, Lisa. Trick or Treat: A History of Halloween. London: Reaktion Books, 2019.

Napier, James. Folk lore, or Superstitious beliefs in the west of Scotland within this century: with an appendix shewing the probable relation to the modern festivals of Christmas, May Day, St. John’s Day, and Halloween, to ancient sun and fire worship. Paisley, Scotland: A. Gardner, 1879.